This section synthesizes a number of best college access and readiness practices, from elementary school to high school, at the classroom, school, and district/system-wide level, with a particular emphasis on BIPOC and marginalized youth. In giving examples of what is working with regards to college access and readiness, the hope is that practices such as these can be modified to local contexts, scaled up, and replicated where appropriate.

Classroom-Level Practices

We examine college access and readiness practices that are implemented at the classroom-level. Teacher-centered practices, classroom interventions, and a focus on literacy emphasize what is required to prepare BIPOC students for college.

Positive Student-Teacher Relationships

While negative student-teacher relationships can impede college readiness, positive student-teacher relationships and support from teachers can help to facilitate the process. One study found that Black students randomly assigned to at least one Black teacher in grades K-3 were 9 percentage points (13%) more likely to graduate from high school and 6 percentage points (19%) more likely to enroll in college than their same-school, same-race peers (Gershenson et al., 2018). Teachers maintaining asset-based perspectives towards BIPOC students can serve as a bridge between high school and college (Acevedo, 2020). Students perceiving their teachers in a positive light has also been associated with a smoother transition to college for marginalized and underrepresented students (Perez-Felkner, 2015).

The “warm demander” teaching approach is a culturally responsive pedagogical technique that promotes socio-emotional connection and academic success for BIPOC students (Ladson-Billings, 1994). Ford and Stassi (2014) describe the authority of the warm demanded as constructed through a confluence of care, discipline, high expectations, and a congruent interactional style, while the warm demander’s broader stance is grounded in the shared culture of African Americans. A recent study showed a positive relationship between teachers who students described as having warm demander characteristics and African American student achievement growth, determined by teacher value-added scores (Sandilos et al., 2017). While the literature does not clarify connections between warm demander approaches and college readiness, Boucher and Helfenbein (2015) connect critical approaches, warm demander, and academic experiences of vulnerable populations. They mention college and understanding that process as a challenge for vulnerable populations.

At the same time, there are cautions connected to how teachers can implement this approach. Ford and Stassi (2014) conducted an ethnographic study that revealed differences in the warm demander approach when enacted by a Black teacher and a White teacher with Black students. One of the findings highlights the importance of White teachers raising their critical race consciousness. Cosier (2019) also explored Whiteness when cultivating warm demanders in her pre-service art education teaching class. She found that students had trouble finding models of warm demanders in predominantly White spaces. Preservice teaching students would not reflect on issues related to race, something that was asked of them as part of learning the warm demander approach. Meanwhile, Sondel et al. (2019) highlighted how white saviorism, colorblind racism, and anti-blackness in “No Excuses” charter schools complicate White teachers as warm demanders. In the two charter schools studied, while White teachers used texts for teaching like warm demanders by Lisa Delpit, the ideas were misused and promoted White supremacy. White teachers modeling warm demanding at these charter schools demanded high expectations and claimed to prepare students for the culture of power, but did not honor students’ culture, analyze how White supremacy operates, nor challenge their own biases.

Although we focused on student-teacher relationships in this section, peer relationships are also critical (Perez-Felkner, 2015). Peers are indispensable for Latinx students, in particular, because they often encourage students to meet milestones on the way to college, as they share similar struggles and aspirations (Perez-Felkner, 2015).

Implementation of Specific Interventions/Curricula

Few studies have evaluated the implementation of select interventions sought out to increase college readiness in elementary-aged students. Below, we provide a summary of empirical articles with positive effects on students’ college readiness. It is important to note that implementing the conversations within the interventions can be done without implementing the entire intervention; however, positive results are only evidenced from the implementation of the intervention in its entirety.

Operation Occupation Mariana et al. (2016) provided a college and career curriculum to 5th grade students. This curriculum recruited counselors and teachers within the school to deliver the four classroom lessons over the course of one week:

• Lesson 1 explored wants and needs (e.g., cell phone, water, health care, etc.) and connected them to decision-making.
• Lesson 2 focused on different learning staples and understanding that life-long learning is necessary for postsecondary education.
• Lesson 3 focused on personality types and occupations that correspond with them.
• Lesson 4 focused on job skills, including communication and social skills, mathematics, and computer skills.

This curriculum also included a career fair in which students could supplement the information learned from the lessons with real life examples. Results of the curriculum included a significant increase in college interest, as well as knowledge about college and career readiness. It is important to note that White students made up the majority of the student population; however, this same curriculum can be provided within a culturally responsive context to benefit BIPOC students. For example, ensuring that the career fair includes a number of professionals of color will ensure that all students can see representatives from their own background pursuing exciting and interesting careers.

The REACH Career and College Readiness Curriculum Allen et al. (2019) involved a six-session curriculum to enhance career and college readiness self-efficacy among 4th graders with the help of one school counselor and one intern. The curriculum included 50 minute sessions over 8 weeks where students began each lesson with check-ins. Topics included determining life desires and what is most important to them, goal setting, becoming acquainted with career exploration tools, and learning about the college application process in a developmentally appropriate way. Compared to the 4th grade students who did not receive the curriculum, after 8 weeks, the Black and Latinx students who did receive it achieved higher career and college readiness efficacy scores. It is important to note that only 46 students received the curriculum, which may be important for future educators when wanting to implement this curriculum. Additionally, we do not know how increased efficacy in 4th grade translates into college and career readiness in adolescence.

Literacy Instruction

Literacy skills are extremely important for college as students are expected to adapt to a novel environment in which learning expectations are more independent than high school (Rasinki, 2017). Turner (2019) offers four practices/principles to improve K-8 Black students’ college and career readiness through literacy instruction. These practices have also been seen in other previous works and are congruent with culturally responsive instruction. Such culturally responsive practices are provided in a developmentally appropriate way.

• Leverage students’ community knowledge and career aspirations for literacy skill instruction. Rather than educators providing knowledge to students through a one-way street, literacy instruction should begin with students’ providing information regarding their cultural worlds and knowledge regarding their communities and how that information relates to the classroom topic. These conversations should also connect students’ future career goals and aspirations to the topic.

• Center students’ racial and cultural knowledge within instruction. Educators should utilize literacies that are racially relevant in order to understand themes, characters, plots, and other literacy-related topics. When students see themselves in the text, they are able to draw upon their own cultural context and knowledge and make more effective connections to the literature. For example, many educators utilize the book, Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry (Taylor, 1976), in order to increase children’s historical knowledge, learn new vocabulary, and increase their critical consciousness through discussing racist events and characters.

• Promote liberatory literacies through different types of writing. Providing increasingly complex texts to students allows them to build their capacity to think critically. Educators should provide opportunities to critique different types of texts with varying complexity. For example, when Black children can share their own expressions through poetry, they are able to overcome the thought of being a “bad writer” due to their previous experiences with monogamous White-centered texts (Kinloch, 2005).

• Inspire skill development, critique, and action through “problem-posing” projects. Researchers suggest educators provide frequent opportunities for students to examine issues of power, privilege, and oppression (Turner, 2019). Educators should have students critique, discuss, and act in order to increase their critical and sociopolitical consciousness.

In Summary

• While the culturally warm demander can be used to teach BIPOC and marginalized students, issues such as the race of teachers and correct implementation of the approach is important.
• A connection between warm demanders and college readiness is not found in the literature, but it does connect to the academic experiences of marginalized students, which does connect to college access and readiness.
• Interventions within the classroom setting should look to bring awareness to college as well as skills and interests that connect to college.
• Literacy instruction should work to be culturally responsive in order to increase engagement among students. Subsequently, instruction should challenge students to critique and problem-solve as these skills will help to increase their readiness for college.

School-Level Practices

College access and readiness practices can be implemented school-wide. Effective practices can put BIPOC students on the college path. We discuss several college readiness practices for high schools, the importance of positive messaging, targeted interventions, and specific services for immigrant and refugee students to magnify how to best serve BIPOC students.

High School Approaches

Much more research exists to examine practices that can influence college readiness in BIPOC/marginalized students in high school as compared to elementary and middle school. With their postsecondary futures only years away, researchers have examined several practices, factors, and interventions that can increase BIPOC/marginalized high school students’ college readiness, awareness, access, and knowledge. Practices are provided in more detail below. It is important to note that some practices will be similar to elementary and middle school recommendations; however, how they are implemented should be appropriate to the age-group. Additionally, while research has been able to identify these helpful practices in preparing students for college, evidence is sparse as to what outcomes are associated with what combination of practices.

Providing Positive Messages & Support

While deficit perspectives can serve as a barrier for students, diminishing those narratives can serve as a facilitator. Harper (2015) discussed the use of the Anti-Deficit Achievement framework, which opens strengths-based discussions for Black males. Harper (2015) provides them with messages about college, and treats them as students who can be successful and achieve academically. This framework, targeted for both students and school personnel, moves them away from perceiving their surroundings as bad. For example, moving away from believing that nothing good comes out of low-income schools allows educators to decrease their likelihood of harming students due to cultural stereotypes. When students are exposed to positive messages about themselves and their schools, they are able to develop positive identities and pursue higher education aspirations. Though a noble outlook, it is important to note that positive messages cannot be all that marginalized students receive in order to be college ready. Murillo (2017) found that providing undocumented students with positive messages and support regarding college and providing them with financial aid support and navigation through the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) were important for transitioning into higher education. The students needed positive messages regarding college access along with support navigating access as an undocumented student, which boasts its own challenges. When given the navigational support needed, college accessibility became attainable.

Tiered Approaches

This section discusses two types of targeted interventions, targeted universalism and multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS). The intent behind these approaches is for interventions targeted for marginalized groups to also have components that serve all students. While there is limited literature about targeted universalism, there are more articles about connecting MTSS to college access and readiness frameworks.

Targeted Universalism

Powell (2009) describes how targeted universalism sees marginalized populations as “canaries in the coal mine” (term from “The Miner’s Canary”), meaning that the problems that certain parts of American society experience can affect those in larger society. He also describes how a targeted universalism strategy is inclusive of dominant and marginalized groups, emphasizing marginalized groups. The Oakland Unified School District (OUSD) used this approach via their African American Male Achievement program, which OUSD later aimed to scale for girls and other students of color (Chatmon & Watson, 2018). While there is no direct link in the literature between Targeted Universalism and college access and readiness, a quasi-experimental study on the OUSD initiative found a reduction in drop-out rates of Black males and, to a lesser degree, female students (Dee & Penner, 2019).

Multi-Tiered Systems of Support and College Access and Readiness

MTSS is a prevention framework that addresses student needs with different tiers of support with varying levels of intensity (Hayes & Lillenstein, 2015). Hayes and Lillenstein (2015) present a framework for student learning and growth where college and career readiness standards are implemented through tiered levels of support, along with formative and frequent opportunities for teacher evaluation. Another framework connecting MTSS to college and career readiness standards makes the case that connecting MTSS to six college and career readiness domains including academic engagement, mindsets, learning processes, critical thinking, interpersonal engagement, and transition competencies, will serve students with disabilities and all students (Morningstar et al., 2018). One example given was the use of individual learning plans being used for all students as a way to create mindsets that focus on college and careers. Darling-Hammond and Cooke-Harvey (2018) discuss the importance of implementing MTSS in a culturally competent way, where student assets rather than deficits are highlighted. This approach is especially important for BIPOC students who may be from cultures not represented in the school environment or who have been previously viewed through deficit lenses. While there have not been studies using the frameworks presented by Hayes and Lillenstein (2015) or Morningstar et al., (2018), this is a starting point for states, districts, and schools to consider how to more seamlessly bring together MTSS and college and career readiness.

Individualized Support

Many of the studies we reviewed explored and encouraged the role of individualized support on college readiness and preparedness (Armbruster & Hatch, 2019; Britton & Spencer, 2020; Toews et al., 2020). Individualized support means identifying specific student goals and preferences for learning and designing individualized supports, including instruction, curricular adaptations, peer and personnel supports. Individualized support requires viewing students as individuals who have their own academic, career, and social development trajectories.

Individualized support for students to help them plan for their future can help to facilitate higher education aspirations. For example, Britton and Spencer (2020) found that creating individualized learning plans, which helps to identify and prepare postsecondary goals, with low-income high school students increased students’ chances of applying for financial aid and submitting applications to multiple higher education institutions. Similarly, Armbruster and Hatch (2019) utilized a student-centered approach toward increasing Latinx students’ academic and career development, and found that, at the end of the program, 82% of students had been accepted at several postsecondary institutions. Hallmarks of this approach included a culturally responsive curriculum, college/career development, and a guest speaker series, local college fairs, and financial aid workshops. If students were not able to attend, their school counselor brought the information to them directly.

Specific Services for Urban Immigrant & Refugee Middle School Students

Immigrant and refugee students have an added layer of navigating a new society while facing academic challenges (e.g., being forced to assimilate to White-dominant culture and alienating their linguistic and cultural traditions). Of course, this added layer can make it hard for students to achieve college readiness. Several practices can help students increase their college readiness through common indicators of readiness, such as GPA and attendance rate.

Previous literature suggests that immigrant and refugee students are likely to experience chronic absenteeism when they feel as though they do not fit in (Meloche et al., 2020). Thus, it is suggested that an attendance team, including a school counselor and community-school facilitator like a school psychologist, monitor attendance and visit the homes of students to address issues in a non-punitive manner. This allows schools to build home-school collaboration as well as make school a more comfortable environment for students. Research also suggested that schools who have onsite cultural navigation support, school-based mental health services such as counseling, and trauma-sensitive school training can help immigrant and refugee youth address and decrease their stress, thereby increasing their chances of attending school.

In regard to academics, immigrant and refugee students utilize more cognitive energy in classrooms because they have to translate materials and then respond to the material (Reyes, 2020). In order to address this, research suggested that schools create environments that allow students to increase their social capital. Such practices include families being assigned school-based cultural navigators who can assist with acculturation. Acculturation refers to students maintaining their cultural orientation while also orienting themselves with the mainstream culture. This differs from assimilation, which would require students to decrease their cultural orientation (Moinolmolki, 2019). It is important for immigrant and refugee students to continue building on their own language, knowledge, and cultural identities. Providing ESL tutoring and homework aid will also help students to decrease the time they spend navigating class assignments.

In Summary

• Several practices have been documented to increase college-readiness among students at different developmental periods. These practices utilized multiple stakeholders (e.g., parents, teachers, administrators, community members) and took individualized approaches. While building academic skills in students is important for college readiness, it is important to also focus on non-cognitive factors and critical consciousness. Simply having conversations with students about college can make a meaningful difference.
• Researchers still have work to do in regard to refining practices. Little evidence exists to examine college readiness in younger students despite research noting the importance of instilling college self-efficacy in them. Additionally, more research is needed to understand specific strategies for different races/ethnicities. Regardless, it will be important for educators to take individualized culturally responsive approaches to helping students gain access to college and be ready to apply.
• Targeted Universalism is found to a limited degree in the literature. One school district that implemented targeted universalism found that it improved outcomes for Black students.
• Multi-tiered systems of support is another approach to having universal and targeted approaches for students. MTSS has been connected to college and career readiness frameworks.
• Simply encouraging students and providing them with positive messages about college and educational aspirations can motivate them to pursue higher education. However, it is important to note that this must be coupled with explicit college application and financial aid support.
• Addressing attendance (e.g., home-school collaboration) and addressing academics (e.g., acculturation support) can ensure that refugee and immigrant students can academically succeed while also maintaining their cultural identity.

This option is especially advantageous for low-income schools where they may not have school counselors with the time to provide college-related messages to students.

Use of College Access and Readiness Data

This section synthesizes existing college access and readiness data indicators. Where possible these indicators are connected to BIPOC and marginalized populations. Academic and non-academic indicators are described. There is a need for more literature describing non-academic college access and readiness indicators for BIPOC and marginalized youth, especially at the elementary and middle school level.

Often, college access and readiness data are collected in high school to determine what types of interventions students need to keep students on the path to college. Data are then disaggregated by subgroups, including BIPOC youth, to analyze equitable opportunities and outcomes for all students. Some educators can see elementary and middle school as too early to prepare students for college. Contrary to this point of view, there is also a K-12 approach to college access and readiness, where higher education is a focus much earlier than high school (Pulliam & Bartek, 2017; Mariani et al., 2016; Allensworth et al., 2014; and Gaertner & McClarty, 2015). By documenting how young people understand the preparation, opportunities, and aspirations toward higher education as early as possible, schools and districts can push for college access and readiness equity across the K-12 system, especially for BIPOC and marginalized students. It is also critical to use measures beyond academics to capture how K-12 students are given opportunities and prepared for college.

Elementary and Middle School Data

College readiness indicators and data connect to career aspirations in elementary school. A review of studies focused on college, and career interventions in elementary schools noted that career aspirations shape children's mindsets early (Pulliam & Bartek, 2017). Cultivating career aspirations at an early age builds a foundation to discuss the college pathways that align with these careers. Another approach to measuring college and career readiness comes from a study that targeted K-5 diverse literacy learners and encouraged literacy strategies to meet college and career readiness standards such as the Common Core State Standards (Turner & Dandridge, 2014 and see Practices section for updates).

Common Core State Standards That Enhance College and Career Readiness for Diverse K–5 Students

• Demonstrate independent and engaged reading
• Build strong content knowledge
• Actively use literacy in responsive and purposeful ways
• Comprehend and critique texts
• Use evidence from multiple texts to strengthen argumentation
• Use technology and digital media strategically, and
• Demonstrate cross-cultural awareness and understanding

The literacy strategies included:

• Building community-oriented classrooms
• Supporting close readings of complex texts
• Orchestrating content-rich inquiries
• Enhancing cultural connectedness to texts

Developing indicators that measure the implementation of these strategies and the college and career readiness standards highlighted by Turner and Dandridge (2014) would enable elementary schools to assess students’ college and career readiness skills.

While academics are only one indicator of college access and preparation, they can signal students who need extra support. Allensworth et al. (2014) determined that academic middle school indicators (grades 5-8), such as core GPA and attendance, were predictive of high school performance. Other middle school data and indicators included flagging students with a less than 80% attendance rate or a GPA of 1.0 or lower to provide extra support. Non-academic measures in middle school such as grit and study habits were not strongly predictive of high school performance (Allensworth et al., 2014). In contrast, motivation (such as locus of control, academic self-concept, effort, and postsecondary goals) and behavior (absences and suspensions, tardies, discipline referrals, and incomplete assignments) were predictive of college readiness and achievement (Gaertner & McClarty, 2015), as defined by high school grades and standardized test scores. When schools decide which middle school indicators to use, they can consider racial and cultural biases. Non-academic measures that account for student identities, competencies, and their sociocultural context can also prove informative when measuring college access and readiness. For example, a critical consciousness scale can measure youth’s sociopolitical development (Diemer et al., 2017, Diemer et al., 2020). Youth engaged in critical conscious raising activities like youth organizing have had increased college outcomes. Rogers and Terriquez (2013) found that youth organizing alumni were significantly more likely to attend a four-year college.

High School Data

Most of the college readiness indicators and data center on high schools. Allensworth et al. (2018) found that the most predictive early warning indicators for high school graduation included course grades, failures, and attendance and for college readiness indicators, course grades. Other college indicators highlighted for consideration included: coursework, learning skills and knowledge, test scores (predicts college access, but not college performance), and completion of milestones. The College Readiness Indicator System (CRIS) also measures college readiness and uses three areas to do so: academic preparedness, college knowledge, and academic tenacity (Borsato et al, 2013). While these indicators are not directly connected to BIPOC and marginalized youth, creating measures beyond high school graduation can help all students on the path to college.

Cross-Sector Data Collaborations

Cross-institutional college readiness indicators and collaborations also exist. Grady (2016) highlighted essential elements for cross-data collaboration. These elements included securing broad-based support, building a cross-sector data infrastructure, strengthening staff capacity to use data effectively, and forging partnerships with community organizations. The Long Beach Promise was a cross-institutional collaboration (school district, community college, four-year college, and the city) that also emphasized the need for a shared student-level data warehouse to assess and support students (Nodine et al., 2019). A second conceptual paper on data-driven decision making with an end goal of college readiness discussed a theory of action with three key steps: assembling high-quality raw data, conducting an analysis that ensures resulting data are relevant and diagnostic, and using relevant and diagnostic data to inform instructional and operational decisions (Gill et al., 2014). The paper also discusses data-driven decision making, the necessary organizational supports , and the type of data that each decision-maker would use (Gill et al., 2014). Lastly, a study of a district-level effort to promote college readiness indicators found that for the district to be successful, there needed to be leadership commitment, data infrastructure, the building of adult capacity around data use and college readiness, connecting indicators with supports to promote college readiness, and partnerships with community and higher education (Mac Iver et al., 2019).

In Summary

• Asset bundles take a comprehensive approach toward understanding students’ strengths and areas for improvement. Doing so can help to tailor intervention plans and, subsequently, get them on the right track for college preparation and readiness.
• University-school partnerships boast several advantages for both the university and school setting. Schools are advantaged by receiving extra support in ensuring that their children are aware of college and have support to help them navigate college applications.
• While data systems capture students' skills regarding college readiness, there should also be data collected to reflect students' experiences, including structural barriers they may be facing related to college readiness.

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